From “At Risk” to “Dangerous” People. The Roma Between Development Policies and Practices of Expulsion
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Jun 21, 2024
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Abstract
Over more than three decades since the fall of state socialism in Central and Eastern Europe, the position of the Roma in the region is rather ambivalent. Numerous European institutions, inter-governmental development agencies, national governments and European and national/local non-governmental organizations are involved in a pan-European effort to turn the tide for the Roma. The paper argues that although there are numerous efforts to implement development policies and programs to bridge the gap between Roma and non-Roma, there is still a gap between the discourses and inclusion policies developed at the European and national level and those at the sub-national level. There is a tendency to move away from the framing of Roma as an “at risk” group to seeing them as “dangerous people”, who pose threats to the security of others. The paper uses two sets of data sources. First, it employs a secondary analysis of three recent databases: – SocioRoMap – Sociographic mapping of Roma communities in Romania for community-level monitoring of changes regarding Roma integration (2017) and two surveys conducted by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (2011 and 2016). The second data source is based on semi-structured interviews carried out in several research projects that the author has participated in over the last few years. In conclusion, I argue that the two political projects of institutional developmentalism and securitization of the lifestyle of the poorest Roma can coexist, but the abandonment of the former can lead to complex social problems in the future.
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
Anghel, I. M. (2024). From “At Risk” to “Dangerous” People. The Roma Between Development Policies and Practices of Expulsion. Sociologie Românească, 22(1), 9-29. https://doi.org/10.33788/sr.22.1.1
References
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Anghel, I.M. (2019). Politici publice adresate minorității rome în perioada postsocialistă: între europenizare și deresponsabilizare, Sociologie Românească, 17(2), 92-117.
Anghel, I.M. (2022). Evoluţia situaţiei socioeconomice a minorităţii rome din mediul rural, in România rurală în noul capitalism: 1990-2020, I. Stănescu, & F. Mihalache (eds.), București: Editura Pro Universitaria, 246-62.
Anghel, I.M. (2024). Governing the ‘unmarked’ Citizens: Romania’s roma in the grip of socialist Technologies of Power, Nationalities Papers, 52(1), 103-19.
Anghel, I.M., & Alexandrescu, F. M. (2023). ‘We Lurk in the Hidden Places’: The (Un)Stable Spatialisation of Roma Poverty in Romania, Urban Studies, 60 (10), 1875-93.
Baar, H. van. (2019). From ‘Lagging Behind’ to ‘Being Beneath’? The De-Developmentalization of Time and Social Order in Contemporary Europe., in H. van Baar, A. Ivasiuc, & R. Kreide (eds.), The Securitization of the Roma in Europe, Cham: Palgrave Macmillan,159-82.
Bădescu, G. (2001). A Quantitative Analysis of the Roma Projects, in V. Anăstăsoaie, & D. Tarnovschi (eds.), Roma Projects in Romania, 1990-2000, Cluj-Napoca: Ethnocultural Diversity Resource Center, 35-68.
Barany, Z. (1994). Living on the Edge: The East European Roma in Postcommunist Politics and Societies, Slavic Review, 53(2), 321-44.
Barany, Z. (2004). Romani Marginality and Politcs, in C. Henrey (ed.), Romania since 1989, Politcs, Economics and Society, Oxford: Lexington Books, 255-74.
Berescu, C., Alexandrescu, F., & Anghel, I.M. (2021). Vulnerable Roma Communities in Times of the Covid-19 Negative Quarantine, Moravian Geographical Reports, 29(2), 125-36. https://doi.org/10.2478/mgr-2021-0011.
Brüggemann, C., & Friedman, E. (2017). The Decade of Roma Inclusion: Origins, Actors, and Legacies, European Education, 49(1), 1-9.
Decker, C., & McGarry, A. (2005). Enhancing Minority Governance in Romania. The Romanian Draft Law on the Status of National Minorities: Issues of Definition, NGO Status and Cultural Autonomy. Sinaia: European Centre for Minority Issues.
Dediu, M. (2007). Rolul instituțiilor internaționale în reformarea politicilor publice pentru romii din România, in Florin Bondar (ed.), Politici publice și administrație publică, Iași: Polirom, 167-99.
European Commission (2003). European Union Support for Roma Communities in Central and Eastern Europe. Brussels: Enlargement Information Unit. http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/.
European Commission (2004). Review of the European Union Phare Assistance to Roma Minorities. Interim Evaluation of Phare Support Allocated in 1999-2002 and Implemented until November 2003. Bruxelles: European Commission.
European Commission (2010). Roma in Europe: The Implementation of European Union Instruments and Policies for Roma Inclusion – Progress Report 2008-2010. Brussels: European Commission.
European Commission (2011). An EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020, COM(2011) 173, final. Bruxelles: European Commission.
European Commission (2014). Health Status of the Roma Population. Bruxelles: European Commission.
European Council (1993). European Council in Copenhaga. Conclusions of the Presidency. Copenhaga: Council of Europe. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/21225/72921.pdf.
FRA (2014a). Roma Survey – Data in Focus. Education: The Situation of Roma in 11 EU Member States. Luxembourg: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights.
FRA (2014b). Roma Survey – Data in Focus. Poverty and Employment: The Situation of Roma in 11 EU Member States. Luxembourg: Fundamental Rights Agency.
FRA (2016). Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey. Roma - Selected Findings. Luxembourg: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights.
FRA, & UNDP (2012). The Situation of Roma in 11 EU Member States. Survey Results at a Glance. Luxembourg: Fundamental Rights Agency and United Nations Development Programme.
Guglielmo, R., & Waters, T. (2005). Migrating Towards Minority Status: Shifting European Policy Towards Roma, Journal of Common Market Studies, 43(4), 763-86.
Guvernul României, (2022). Strategia Guvernului României de Incluziune a Cetățenilor Români Aparținând Minorității Rome Pentru Perioada 2022-2027. București: Guvernul României. http://www.anr.gov.ro/images/2022/Monitorul-Oficial-Partea-I-nr.-450Bis.pdf.
Hajek, R. (1998). Roma in Eastern Europe: Ethnic Policy and Security in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Romania, Nattional Security Affairs. California: Naval Postgraduate School.
Haupert, A. (2007). Decade Watch Roma Activists Assess the Progress of the Decade of Roma Inclusion. Budapest: Open Society Foundations. https://www.rcc.int/romaintegration2020/romadecadefold//decade%20implementation/4.%20civil%20society%20reports/Decade%20Watch_Roma%20Activists%20Assess%20the%20Progress%20of%20Roma%20Inclusion%202005-2006.pdf.
Horváth, I. (ed.) (2017). Raport de Cercetare - SocioRoMap. O cartografiere a comunităţilor de romi din România. Cluj-Napoca: Institutul pentru Studierea Problemelor Minorităţilor Naţionale.
Merlingen, M. (2003). Governmentality: Towards a Foucauldian Framework for the Study of IGOs. Cooperation and Conflict, 38(4), 361-84.
Meyer, J. (2010). A Decade of Work: Roma in the EU, The New Presence, 4, 42-52.
Mionel, V. (2013). România ghetourilor urbane – spațiul vicios al marginalizării, sărăciei și stigmatului. București: Pro Universitaria.
Moisă, F., Rostas, I. A., Tarnovschi, D., Stoian, I., Rădulescu, D. & Andersen, T.-Ş. (2013). Updated Civil Society Monitoring Report on the Implementation of the National Roma Integration Strategy and Decade Action Plan in 2012 and 2013 in Romania. Budapest.
National Agency for Roma (2011). Decade of Roma Inclusion 2005-2015. 2011 Progress Report. Bucharest: National Agency for Roma.
Open Society Institute (2011). EU Policies for Roma Inclusion. Bruxelles: Open Society Institute. 2011. http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/2011-07%2520EU%2520Roma%2520Inclusion%2520Policies%2520final.pdf.
OSCE (2008). Implementation of the Action Plan on Improving the Situation of Roma and Sinti Within the OSCE Area. Warsaw: OSCE/ODIHR.
Partidul Comunist Român (1977). Studiu privind situația social-economică a populației de țigani din țara noastră. București: Partidul Comunist Român.
Picker, G. (2017). Governance and the Segregation of Romani People in Urban Europe. London and New York: Routledge.
Rauh, C. (2018). Decomposing Gaps Between Roma and Non-Roma in Romania, Journal of Demographic Economics, 84 (2), 209-29.
Reid, A. (2010). Decade Watch. Results of the 2009 Survey. Budapest: Open Society Foundations. https://www.rcc.int/romaintegration2020/romadecadefold//decade%20implementation/4.%20civil%20society%20reports/Decade%20Watch_Results%20of%20the%20Survey%202009.pdf.
Revenga, A., Ringold, D., and Tracy W. (2002). Poverty and Ethnicity. A Cross-Country Study of Roma Poverty in Central Europe. Washington DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction.
Ringold, D. (2000). Roma and the Transition in Central and Eastern Europe: Trends and Challenges. Washington: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
Ringold, D., Orenstein, M. & Wilkens, E. (2005). Roma in an Expanding Europe: Breaking the Poverty Cycle. Washington: International Bank for Reconstruction.
Rughiniș, C. (2010). The Forest behind the Bar Charts: Bridging Quantitative and Qualitative Research on Roma/Tigani in Contemporary Romania, Patterns of Prejudice, 44(4), 337-67.
Sterbling, A. (1995). On the Development of Ethnic Relations and Conflicts in Romania, Anthropological Journal on European Cultures, 4(2), 37-52.
Surdu, M. (2016). Those Who Count. Expert Practices of Roma Classification. Budapest: Central European University Press.
Tarnovschi, D., Preoteasa, A. M., Vlase, I., Pamporov, A., Kabakchieva, P. & Palvarini, P. (2012). Romii din România, Bulgaria, Italia și Spania, între incluziune socială și migrație. Studiu comparativ, București: Fundaţia Soros România.
Themelis, S. (2016). The Time of the Roma in Times of Crisis: Where Has European Neoliberal Capitalism Failed? Ethnicities, 16(3), 432-51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796815584421.
UNDP (2002). Avoiding the Dependency Trap. The Roma in Central and Eastern Europe. Bratislava: United Nations Development Programme.
UNDP (2005). Faces of Poverty, Faces of Hope. Vulnerability Profiles for Decade of Roma Inclusion Countries. Bratislava: United Nations Development Programme.
UNDP (2006). At Risk: Roma and the Displaced in Southeast Europe. Bratislava: UNDP.
UNDP (2011). Beyond Transition. Towards Inclusive Societies. Bratislava: United Nations Development Programme.
UNICEF (2011). The Rights of Roma Children to Education. Position Paper. Geneva: UNICEF Regional Office for Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States.
UNICEF (2012). Roma Early Childhood Inclusion. The RECI Overview Report. Budapest: UNICEF.
Vincze, E. (2014a). Faces and Causes of Roma Marginalization. Experiences from Romania, in I. Szalai, & V. Zentai (eds.), Faces and Causes of Roma Marginalization in Local Contexts, 67-96. Budapest: Center for Policy Studies.
Vincze, E. (2014b). The Racialization of Roma in the ‘New’ Europe and the Political Potential of Romani Women, European Journal of Women’s Studies, 21(4), 443-49.
Vincze, E., & Hossu, I.-E. (eds.) (2014). Marginalizarea socio-teritorială a comunităţilor de romi din România: Studii de caz în Județele Alba, Arad, Călărași, Dolj și Iași. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Fundaţiei pentru Studii Europene.
Vincze, E., Petrovici, Raț, N. C., & Picker, G.(eds.) (2019). Racialized Labour in Romania. Spaces of Marginality at the Periphery of Global Capitalism. London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Vincze, E., & Raț, C. (2013). Spatialization and Racialization of Social Exclusion. The Social and Cultural Formation of „Gypsy Ghettos” in Romania in a European Context, Studia Universitatis Babes Bolyai – Sociologia, LVIII, (2), 5-21.
World Bank (2014). Diagnostics and Policy Advice for Supporting Roma Inclusion in Romania. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Zamfir, C., & Preda, M. (eds.) (2002). Romii în România. București: Expert.
Zamfir, C., & Zamfir, E. (1993). Țiganii între ignorare și îngrijorare. București: Alternative.
Anghel, I.M. (2019). Politici publice adresate minorității rome în perioada postsocialistă: între europenizare și deresponsabilizare, Sociologie Românească, 17(2), 92-117.
Anghel, I.M. (2022). Evoluţia situaţiei socioeconomice a minorităţii rome din mediul rural, in România rurală în noul capitalism: 1990-2020, I. Stănescu, & F. Mihalache (eds.), București: Editura Pro Universitaria, 246-62.
Anghel, I.M. (2024). Governing the ‘unmarked’ Citizens: Romania’s roma in the grip of socialist Technologies of Power, Nationalities Papers, 52(1), 103-19.
Anghel, I.M., & Alexandrescu, F. M. (2023). ‘We Lurk in the Hidden Places’: The (Un)Stable Spatialisation of Roma Poverty in Romania, Urban Studies, 60 (10), 1875-93.
Baar, H. van. (2019). From ‘Lagging Behind’ to ‘Being Beneath’? The De-Developmentalization of Time and Social Order in Contemporary Europe., in H. van Baar, A. Ivasiuc, & R. Kreide (eds.), The Securitization of the Roma in Europe, Cham: Palgrave Macmillan,159-82.
Bădescu, G. (2001). A Quantitative Analysis of the Roma Projects, in V. Anăstăsoaie, & D. Tarnovschi (eds.), Roma Projects in Romania, 1990-2000, Cluj-Napoca: Ethnocultural Diversity Resource Center, 35-68.
Barany, Z. (1994). Living on the Edge: The East European Roma in Postcommunist Politics and Societies, Slavic Review, 53(2), 321-44.
Barany, Z. (2004). Romani Marginality and Politcs, in C. Henrey (ed.), Romania since 1989, Politcs, Economics and Society, Oxford: Lexington Books, 255-74.
Berescu, C., Alexandrescu, F., & Anghel, I.M. (2021). Vulnerable Roma Communities in Times of the Covid-19 Negative Quarantine, Moravian Geographical Reports, 29(2), 125-36. https://doi.org/10.2478/mgr-2021-0011.
Brüggemann, C., & Friedman, E. (2017). The Decade of Roma Inclusion: Origins, Actors, and Legacies, European Education, 49(1), 1-9.
Decker, C., & McGarry, A. (2005). Enhancing Minority Governance in Romania. The Romanian Draft Law on the Status of National Minorities: Issues of Definition, NGO Status and Cultural Autonomy. Sinaia: European Centre for Minority Issues.
Dediu, M. (2007). Rolul instituțiilor internaționale în reformarea politicilor publice pentru romii din România, in Florin Bondar (ed.), Politici publice și administrație publică, Iași: Polirom, 167-99.
European Commission (2003). European Union Support for Roma Communities in Central and Eastern Europe. Brussels: Enlargement Information Unit. http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/.
European Commission (2004). Review of the European Union Phare Assistance to Roma Minorities. Interim Evaluation of Phare Support Allocated in 1999-2002 and Implemented until November 2003. Bruxelles: European Commission.
European Commission (2010). Roma in Europe: The Implementation of European Union Instruments and Policies for Roma Inclusion – Progress Report 2008-2010. Brussels: European Commission.
European Commission (2011). An EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020, COM(2011) 173, final. Bruxelles: European Commission.
European Commission (2014). Health Status of the Roma Population. Bruxelles: European Commission.
European Council (1993). European Council in Copenhaga. Conclusions of the Presidency. Copenhaga: Council of Europe. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/21225/72921.pdf.
FRA (2014a). Roma Survey – Data in Focus. Education: The Situation of Roma in 11 EU Member States. Luxembourg: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights.
FRA (2014b). Roma Survey – Data in Focus. Poverty and Employment: The Situation of Roma in 11 EU Member States. Luxembourg: Fundamental Rights Agency.
FRA (2016). Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey. Roma - Selected Findings. Luxembourg: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights.
FRA, & UNDP (2012). The Situation of Roma in 11 EU Member States. Survey Results at a Glance. Luxembourg: Fundamental Rights Agency and United Nations Development Programme.
Guglielmo, R., & Waters, T. (2005). Migrating Towards Minority Status: Shifting European Policy Towards Roma, Journal of Common Market Studies, 43(4), 763-86.
Guvernul României, (2022). Strategia Guvernului României de Incluziune a Cetățenilor Români Aparținând Minorității Rome Pentru Perioada 2022-2027. București: Guvernul României. http://www.anr.gov.ro/images/2022/Monitorul-Oficial-Partea-I-nr.-450Bis.pdf.
Hajek, R. (1998). Roma in Eastern Europe: Ethnic Policy and Security in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Romania, Nattional Security Affairs. California: Naval Postgraduate School.
Haupert, A. (2007). Decade Watch Roma Activists Assess the Progress of the Decade of Roma Inclusion. Budapest: Open Society Foundations. https://www.rcc.int/romaintegration2020/romadecadefold//decade%20implementation/4.%20civil%20society%20reports/Decade%20Watch_Roma%20Activists%20Assess%20the%20Progress%20of%20Roma%20Inclusion%202005-2006.pdf.
Horváth, I. (ed.) (2017). Raport de Cercetare - SocioRoMap. O cartografiere a comunităţilor de romi din România. Cluj-Napoca: Institutul pentru Studierea Problemelor Minorităţilor Naţionale.
Merlingen, M. (2003). Governmentality: Towards a Foucauldian Framework for the Study of IGOs. Cooperation and Conflict, 38(4), 361-84.
Meyer, J. (2010). A Decade of Work: Roma in the EU, The New Presence, 4, 42-52.
Mionel, V. (2013). România ghetourilor urbane – spațiul vicios al marginalizării, sărăciei și stigmatului. București: Pro Universitaria.
Moisă, F., Rostas, I. A., Tarnovschi, D., Stoian, I., Rădulescu, D. & Andersen, T.-Ş. (2013). Updated Civil Society Monitoring Report on the Implementation of the National Roma Integration Strategy and Decade Action Plan in 2012 and 2013 in Romania. Budapest.
National Agency for Roma (2011). Decade of Roma Inclusion 2005-2015. 2011 Progress Report. Bucharest: National Agency for Roma.
Open Society Institute (2011). EU Policies for Roma Inclusion. Bruxelles: Open Society Institute. 2011. http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/2011-07%2520EU%2520Roma%2520Inclusion%2520Policies%2520final.pdf.
OSCE (2008). Implementation of the Action Plan on Improving the Situation of Roma and Sinti Within the OSCE Area. Warsaw: OSCE/ODIHR.
Partidul Comunist Român (1977). Studiu privind situația social-economică a populației de țigani din țara noastră. București: Partidul Comunist Român.
Picker, G. (2017). Governance and the Segregation of Romani People in Urban Europe. London and New York: Routledge.
Rauh, C. (2018). Decomposing Gaps Between Roma and Non-Roma in Romania, Journal of Demographic Economics, 84 (2), 209-29.
Reid, A. (2010). Decade Watch. Results of the 2009 Survey. Budapest: Open Society Foundations. https://www.rcc.int/romaintegration2020/romadecadefold//decade%20implementation/4.%20civil%20society%20reports/Decade%20Watch_Results%20of%20the%20Survey%202009.pdf.
Revenga, A., Ringold, D., and Tracy W. (2002). Poverty and Ethnicity. A Cross-Country Study of Roma Poverty in Central Europe. Washington DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction.
Ringold, D. (2000). Roma and the Transition in Central and Eastern Europe: Trends and Challenges. Washington: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
Ringold, D., Orenstein, M. & Wilkens, E. (2005). Roma in an Expanding Europe: Breaking the Poverty Cycle. Washington: International Bank for Reconstruction.
Rughiniș, C. (2010). The Forest behind the Bar Charts: Bridging Quantitative and Qualitative Research on Roma/Tigani in Contemporary Romania, Patterns of Prejudice, 44(4), 337-67.
Sterbling, A. (1995). On the Development of Ethnic Relations and Conflicts in Romania, Anthropological Journal on European Cultures, 4(2), 37-52.
Surdu, M. (2016). Those Who Count. Expert Practices of Roma Classification. Budapest: Central European University Press.
Tarnovschi, D., Preoteasa, A. M., Vlase, I., Pamporov, A., Kabakchieva, P. & Palvarini, P. (2012). Romii din România, Bulgaria, Italia și Spania, între incluziune socială și migrație. Studiu comparativ, București: Fundaţia Soros România.
Themelis, S. (2016). The Time of the Roma in Times of Crisis: Where Has European Neoliberal Capitalism Failed? Ethnicities, 16(3), 432-51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796815584421.
UNDP (2002). Avoiding the Dependency Trap. The Roma in Central and Eastern Europe. Bratislava: United Nations Development Programme.
UNDP (2005). Faces of Poverty, Faces of Hope. Vulnerability Profiles for Decade of Roma Inclusion Countries. Bratislava: United Nations Development Programme.
UNDP (2006). At Risk: Roma and the Displaced in Southeast Europe. Bratislava: UNDP.
UNDP (2011). Beyond Transition. Towards Inclusive Societies. Bratislava: United Nations Development Programme.
UNICEF (2011). The Rights of Roma Children to Education. Position Paper. Geneva: UNICEF Regional Office for Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States.
UNICEF (2012). Roma Early Childhood Inclusion. The RECI Overview Report. Budapest: UNICEF.
Vincze, E. (2014a). Faces and Causes of Roma Marginalization. Experiences from Romania, in I. Szalai, & V. Zentai (eds.), Faces and Causes of Roma Marginalization in Local Contexts, 67-96. Budapest: Center for Policy Studies.
Vincze, E. (2014b). The Racialization of Roma in the ‘New’ Europe and the Political Potential of Romani Women, European Journal of Women’s Studies, 21(4), 443-49.
Vincze, E., & Hossu, I.-E. (eds.) (2014). Marginalizarea socio-teritorială a comunităţilor de romi din România: Studii de caz în Județele Alba, Arad, Călărași, Dolj și Iași. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Fundaţiei pentru Studii Europene.
Vincze, E., Petrovici, Raț, N. C., & Picker, G.(eds.) (2019). Racialized Labour in Romania. Spaces of Marginality at the Periphery of Global Capitalism. London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Vincze, E., & Raț, C. (2013). Spatialization and Racialization of Social Exclusion. The Social and Cultural Formation of „Gypsy Ghettos” in Romania in a European Context, Studia Universitatis Babes Bolyai – Sociologia, LVIII, (2), 5-21.
World Bank (2014). Diagnostics and Policy Advice for Supporting Roma Inclusion in Romania. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Zamfir, C., & Preda, M. (eds.) (2002). Romii în România. București: Expert.
Zamfir, C., & Zamfir, E. (1993). Țiganii între ignorare și îngrijorare. București: Alternative.